CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

BHARATANATYAM

Bharatanatyam is one of the most popular dance forms within the classical dance genre, and is practiced the world over by both male and female dancers. Originating in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, it is a reworked dance-form of the traditional “sadir” or temple dances from the 3rd and 4th centuries.

Known for its grace, purity, tenderness, and sculpture-like poses, Bharatanatyam is based on adavu (steps) and hasthamudra (hand gestures). There are a daunting 64 basic steps, and the dance itself is communicated through bhavabhinaya (facial expression), as well as the hand gestures. As with all classical Indian dances, performance starts with prayers to one or more Hindu gods. Bharatnatyam is considered to be a fire-dance — the mystic manifestation of the metaphysical element of fire in the human body. It is one of the five major styles that include Odissi (element of water), Kuchipudi (element of earth), Mohiniattam (element of air) and Kathakali (element of sky or ether). The movements of an authentic Bharatanatyam dancer are said to resemble the movements of a dancing flame.

Bharatnatyam proper is a solo dance, with two aspects: lasya, the graceful feminine lines and movements, and tandava the masculine aspect. In most solo performances, Bharathanatyam involves many split characters that are depicted by the dancer. However, in more modern times, group performances involving dramatic routines that require many characters depicted by various dancers have become common. In addition, these dance performances include numerous transitions and formations that are creatively choreographed to enhance the movements along with the music. Much like pro-athletes, classical dancers endure demanding performances that can last up to two hours.

Besides the beauty and ferocity of the dances themselves, the costumes of any Indian classical dance are simply spectacular. Bharatanatyam dancers wear intricate saris, heavy makeup, and beautiful headpieces. Ornaments of shining stones adorn their neck, ears, and hands, with jasmine garlands often seen in their hair, along with anklets with small bells – denoting the ability to teach or pass on the knowledge of the art.

INDIAN’S CELEBRATION IN MALAYSIA

DEEPAVALI

Deepavali is a festival celebrated by Indians living in Malaysia. This is the festival of lights, it signifies the victory of light and hope over darkness. Houses and streets of Malaysia are adorned with colourful lights and oil lamps. The day starts off by taking a bath with oil and praying. Later during the day processions, street-fairs, fireworks and get-togethers take place. The aromas of a variety of dishes lingering across the streets is one of the things that truly symbolises the festivities of Deepavali in the areas where Indians live in a large number

ZAPIN DANCE

Zapin is one of the traditional Malay dance that have been practicing up till now, generations by generations. It is believed that, the zapin dance was introduced by Muslim Arabians from the Middle East in the fourteenth century. Back then, only Malay men were allowed to perform the dance while Malay women are advised to not to in order to maintain the social boundaries. However, today, zapin has been practicing both genders, men and women. Zapin is most famous and viral in the state of Johor, Pahang and Selangor in Malaysia. Zapin dance used to be performed primarily for religious ceremonies but as time past by it has become a form of traditional entertainment.

As the dancer dance, traditional percusions or instruments are used to play the background music such as gambus, accordion, rebab, marwas or known as bongo , traditional drum rebana and dok.

There are numerous types of zapin and each type varies by the movement and style of dance:

• Zapin Pulau
• Zapin Tengliu
• Zapin Lenga
• Zapin Pekajang
• Zapin Arab
• Zapin Jambi
• Zapin Singapura
• Zapin Sindang
• Zapin Sekaki
• Zapin Pesisir
• Zapin Tembung
• Zapin Melayu Johor 

Costume of Zapin dance :

Male dancer:           Songkok           Baju Melayu           Kain sampin           Capal

Female dancer:             Baju Kurung             Flower on head (sanggul) or headscarf             Traditional necklace             Kain samping             Capal

RELIGIOUS CELEBRATION FOR MUSLIM

1. Hari Raya Aidil Fitri

Hari Raya Aidilfitri is the most joyful of Muslim celebrations celebrated after Ramadhan, the fasting month. This is a time when Muslims working in major towns and cities make an exodus for their kampung or villages. Special prayers are held in mosques and it is a season when Muslims ask for forgiveness from their family members and friends. There’s plenty of house-visits and feasting that will happen during this month long celebration. Malaysians have this great tradition called ‘open house’, a warm showing of what is known as Malaysian hospitality. Doors are opened to friends and family to come together and celebrate. There’s usually plenty of traditional Malay food and desserts to be had.

2. Hari Raya Aidiladha

Hari Raya Aidil Adha, or better known as Hari Raya Haji, is actually the most significant religious celebration for Muslims. It marks the end of the annual pilgrimmage, or Haj, to the Holy City of Mecca, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, which all able-bodied Muslims are asked to perform at least once in their lifetime. Hari Raya Aidil Adha is based on the concept of sacrifice, and it is during this occasion that Muslims all over the world are encouraged by their religion to slaughter cattle, sheep or goats as a token sacrifice – symbolic of bigger sacrifices they are asked to uphold the sanctity of their religion. The sacrificing of animals is why many Malaysians also refer to this day as Hari Raya Qurban – the arabic word for offering.

MALAYSIAN RINGGIT

The Ringgit, unofficially called the Malaysian Dollar, has been Malaysia’s official currency since 1975. The word ringgit is an obsolete term for “jagged” in Malay that was originally used to refer to the serrated edges of silver Spanish dollars (which were used previously, to prevent thieves from shaving off small portions of the precious metal to create new coins). The symbol of the currency is RM, and the currency code is MYR and the Ringgit can be divided into 100 sens (cents). The denominations used are the 5, 10, 20, 50 sen for the coins, and RM1, RM5, RM10, RM20, RM50, RM100 for the bank notes.

Since the 16th century, Malaysia had adopted the Spanish dollars when it was part of the European colonial powers. Malaysia replaced the Spanish silver dollar with the Indian Rupee in 1837, only to reintroduce the Spanish silver dollar 30 years later. In 1903, Malaysia changed its currency to the Straits Dollar, which was pegged at two shillings to the British Pound and it was only in 1967 when the central bank Bank Negara Malaysia introduced the Ringgit currency, that was originally stated as the Malaysian dollar. Prior to this date, the official currency was Dollar Malaya which was also used by Singapore and Brunei.

When the Ringgit currency replaced the Malaya and British Borneo dollar at par, the new currency retained all denominations of its predecessor except the $10,000 denomination and even used similar colour schemes. The new currency which was originally pegged at 8.57 dollars per British Pound was not affected by the devaluation of the Pounds few months later, while the older notes, still pegged with the British Pound, reduced in value to 85 cents per dollar. In 1968, the $1000 denominations were introduced and it was the first bank note to feature the image of Tuanku Abdul Rahman, the first Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia and the signature of Tun Ismail bin Mohamed Ali, the first Malaysian Governor of Bank Negara Malaysia.

The Interchangeability Agreement that binds three countries, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei together, meant the Malaysian dollar was exchangeable at par with the Singapore dollar and Brunei dollar. When Malaysia withdrew from the currency union at 1973, the value of the Ringgit currency was no longer interchangeable for the Singapore or Brunei currency, hence the Malaysian government decided to terminate it. Brunei and Singapore however, continued with the Agreement until present day. Soon after in 1975, the Malay names “ringgit” and “sen” were officially adopted as the official names. However, the currency symbol of “RM” was only introduced much later in 1993 to replace the dollar sign or “$”.

Due to the low demand of the RM1 bills, the RM1 notes were discontinued and replaced by the RM1 coins in 1993. Years later, Malaysia stepped up on their counterfeit measures by introducing an additional hologram strip to the larger denomination RM50 and RM100 notes in 1996.

In 2004, Bank Negara issued a new RM10 note with additional security features including the holographic strip previously only seen on the RM50 and RM100 notes. A newwith a distinctive transparent window was also issued. Due to low demand of the coins in 2005, the RM1 coins were demonetised, and taken out of circulation. This was also done to prevent forgery, and ensure standardisation of the 1 ringgit coin (two different versions of the second series coin were circulating). In early 2008, the Bank released a newly designed RM50 bank note.

However, faced with the increasingly gloomy outlook of the recent volatility and uncertainty, a series of challenges lie ahead of Malaysia as it battles with mounting pressure to keep their Ringgit currency competitive. We can only hope that the Ringgit bounces back from its struggles and regains its former glory as a currency powerhouse.

TRADITIONAL JAPANESE GARMENT

ALL ABOUT KIMONO

Just about everyone is familiar with kimono: the beautiful and most recognizable traditional Japanese garment. What you may not know, however, is that “kimono,” which literally means ‘thing that is worn,’ encompasses many styles, and can be worn for various occasions in Japan. From casual, lightweight yukata worn during summer festivals, to expensive, high quality furisode worn for formal occasions, kimono are woven into the fabric of Japanese life, even in modern times.

THE HISTORY OF KIMONO

Though the kimono is a decidedly Japanese form of dress, it is said that its roots are from China. The earliest form of kimono were worn as a type of undergarment, gaining popularity in Japan during the Muromachi period (1392–1573), when they began to be worn without hakama (traditional Japanese trousers), and paired with a sash called an obi. It wasn't until the Edo period (1603–1867) that the kimono as we know it today really came into its own, with an ever-expanding variety of colors, fabrics, and styles available. The obi became wider, and the length of the kimono sleeves grew as well. Kimono is typically only worn by women or girls, however, there are some exceptions. 

KIMONO PARTS AND ACCESSORIES

There are several elements involved when wearing a kimono. To understand a kimono, it’s important to know the pieces involved. The following are some of the main parts involved in wearing a kimono.

・Kimono - This is the main garment, which can be made from a variety of materials including, cotton, linen, wool, and silk. 

・Obi - The outermost sash that is tied around a kimono. The knot can be tied in a variety of decorative ways.

・Juban - A type of undergarment used specifically with kimono. 

・Koshi-himo - A sash that is tied at the waist to secure the kimono in place. 

・Datejime - A belt that is fastened over the kimono, but under the obi, which helps the obi keep its shape. 

・Tabi - Socks made specifically to be worn with traditional Japanese footwear. The toe area is split into two sections. 

・Geta, Zori - These are some of the traditional types of footwear worn with kimono. They somewhat resemble modern sandals.

TRADISIONAL MALAY GAMES

KITE / WAU

In Malay culture, there are several types of traditional games that are very popular in Malaysia. These types of traditional games are differ in terms of their own history, characteristics, the reasons people play the games and more.

The word ‘Wau’ was derived from the Arabic letter ‘Wau’ as the shape of the wing resemblances to the outline of the particular letter. It was also said that the farmer in the past used Wau to scarecrow to ward off the birds from their paddy fields. In Malaysia, the most popular of all the Wau’s is ‘Wau Bulan’. It is was certain that the name fits one of the three country’s official kites, where the names takes the after the shape of the moon as the tail of the Wau itself look like to the crescent.

• History

Wau game arrival in Malaysia is uncertain validity date and origin. However, according to historian Clive Hart, a kite in Malaysia comes from China. This is because the design and character have in common with traditional kites from China. Kite in the past using a wide tree leaves. Possibility of evolution kite in Malaysia have also absorb cultural elements from China.

• Characteristic of Wau 

The typical size is 2.5 meters in width and 3.5 meters in length. This makes the decorations painted on the kite's body to be visible when it is flown high in the air. To make it more distinctive, wau bulan is normally decorated with large,strong-coloured patterns.

• Types of Wau 

TRADISIONAL ATTIRE

BAJU KURUNG

Baju kurung (Jawi: باجو كوروڠ) is the traditional attire for Malay women. Baju Kurung divided into two Baju Kurung Men and Women. Baju Kurung men also referred to as the Malay shirt. It became the official dress for Malaysia and Brunei, can also be found in Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand. There are two types of baju Baju Kurung and Baju Kurung claypot Gulf Tiny Weasel. This shirt suitable to be worn by all classes of society regardless of age. Baju Kurung is also used to attend the wedding ceremony, religious ceremony, and formal occasions. In Malaysia, all women generally wear baju melayu as traditional attire includes formal attire primary and secondary school students. Only designs and cuts baju vary somewhat by state. In line with the times, now many haute modern design has emerged and accepted by the Malays. Although in general we have accepted modern influence in everyday clothes, but still baju women preferred to be styled. The difference, design baju kurung now more contemporary but still retains original features.

In addition there is a change at the cut and shape, to produce a more modern design and creative, baju kurung also decorated with embroidery, filigree, beads or sequins. Material for producing baju also changed. Now, there is a wide selection of materials including satin, organza, chiffon, silk, batik, linens and more. Changes are made to conform with the current situation or event to be attended by other than trying to imitate the style of foreign deductions may seek to look more elegant. Now there is a wide variation baju and it is known as Baju Kurung Modern. Although baju kurung has evolved in line with changing times and tastes of the wearer, but the designs are still the same. It is still comfortable and well worn sweet girl showing politeness East and Malay cultural superiority.

There are several types of baju kurung, such as :  

• Baju Kurung Gulf claypot

Baju Kurung or Baju Kurung claypot Bay Johor was first introduced during the reign of the late Sultan Abu Bakar when late bersemanyam in claypot Gulf Singapore and moved to Tanjung Puteri in 1866 (now known as Johor Bahru). Defunct stipulates that female shirt labuhnya to below the knee with a fine cloth and not berkocek neck. There are various forms of embroidery that matched in the neck as the eyes of flies, eel bones and gill rays. During the reign of the late Sultan Ibrahim, the son of Sultan Abu Bakar dress was modified according to the recommendations late Jaafar bin Haji Muhammad, Minister of Johor First, a pocket on the shirt girl. Today, Baju Kurung Gulf claypot become synonymous with the traditional baju standard. He wore cloth stacked on the left.

• Baju Kurung Tiny Weasel

Tiny Weasel Baju Kurung Baju Kurung is the same except for the Gulf claypot neck. Tiny Baju Kurung neck collar fox there. Collar is only one finger width and vertical position. At the front of the collar there is a single-aperture length. Deduction shirt is believed to receive influence from India and China.

• Baju Kurung Kedah

Baju Kurung Kedah believed to have originated from southern Thailand, because of the shirt resembles a short blouse made short reaches in the southern Thai butt. Baju Kurung Kedah consisting of a loose and made of chintz (cotton) are small floral or thick or thin gauze rare and betel oval neck incision. Baju Kurung Kedah worn with a sarong. Ambak sarong tied groove and in the left or right. Orissa shirt can be characterized as daily wear or clothes wetting.

• Baju Kurung Malacca

Traditional clothing of Malacca Malay women comfortable shirt pot with bay brackets have sibar dihiiasi pectoral fly from beads and sequins velvet determined.

• Baju Kurung Pahang

Baju Kurung Pahang or known sabagai Baju Kurung Pahang Riau reveal the history between Riau and Pahang state. Although Riau and Madhya Pradesh are the two states are far apart, political and socio-cultural relations that prevailed during the days of the Malacca Sultanate was evident with the creation of this dress cuts, also known as Baju Kebaya Gown Shopping or Turkey. Unlike pesak baju kurung, both sides of the Baju Kurung Pahang Riau connected berpesak fluffy hanging snicker. This high collared shirt once worn very interesting with seven or nine items button.

FAVOURITE FOOD AMONG MALAYSIAN

ROTI CANAI IS A FAVOURITE FOOD AMONG MALAYSIAN

Roti canai also known as roti cane or roti prata, is an Indian-influenced flatbread dish found in several countries in Asia, including Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia and Singapore. It is usually served with dal or other types of curry, but can also be cooked in a range of sweet or savoury variations 

made with a variety of ingredients such as sardines, meat, egg, or cheese. Roti canai is a popular breakfast and snack dish in Malaysia, and one of the most famous examples of Malaysian Indian cuisine. It is said that the dish was brought over from India by Indian Muslims, also known as "Mamaks" in Malaysia, and is served in mamak stalls located in both rural and urban Malaysia.

CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

10 POINTS OF CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN MALAYSIA

PUBLIC CUSTOM

1) Don't eat while walking.

2) Avoid using left hand. “ The right hand is more honorable.”

3) Public displays of affection between different sexes is frowned upon.

4) Show respect towards elders.

5) Don't cross your legs in front of an older people and don't step over someone with crossed legs who is sitting down.

6) Don't pat someone on the head.

7) Don't gesture by pointing.

8) Placing the hands on the hips indicates anger.

9) Malaysians often laugh when embarrassed.

10) Don't expose the soles of your feet. Never put your feet on a table.

CHINA COUNTRY

CHINA'S DIVERSITY

China's Diversity of Scenery

China has :

1. Two of the world's longest rivers (the Yellow River and the Yangzi)
2. The vast Qinghai-Tibet plateau and the huge plains of North China. The climate varies from the subtropical south, with a heavy monsoon rainfall, to the arid North-west; in winter the temperature can be -30°C in the North-east, yet 15°C in the far South.
3. The world's highest mountain (Qomolangma Feng - Mt Everest)
4. Two of the largest deserts (the Gobi and the Taklamakan)

Yellow River & Yangzi River

Highest mountain (Qomolangma Feng)

China's Diversity Of People

There are over 50 different nationalities living in China. The majority (94 percent) are Han Chinese; the other groups include Tibetans, Mongolians, Uyghurs, Zhuang, Li and Miao whose languages and customs are quite different from those of the Han.

1. She Minority People (Fujian and Zhejiang provinces)

The She are an ethnic group that lives primarily on the border region between the coastal provinces of Fujian and Zhejiang in southeast China, with smaller numbers in Guangdong, Jiangxi and Anhui provinces. They have mixed with the Han for a long time and most speak Han languages. They cultivate rice and tea. The She live primarily on steep slopes in river valleys or hilly area at elevations between 500 and 1, 500 meters. They inhabit an area the highlands of southeast China, where, it is said, the mountains are not high but are dark green, and the rivers are not wide but run vertically and horizontally. The climate is mild and humid, the frost season brief, and the land fertile. She are mostly farmers. They grow rice, potatoes, mushrooms, sweet potatoes, wheat, rape, beans, tobacco, tea, oil tea, dried and cured bamboo shoots, peanuts, ramie, camphor and medicinal herbs. The She worship their ancestors and believe in ghosts. Among their most important celebrations are ceremonies that honor family ancestors. In these a picture of Pan Hu is hung in the ancestor hall and the names of all living lineage males are written on a banner. Other festivals honor folk heros and gods. Part time shaman are consulted for treatment of diseases and the exorcism of ghosts. The dead have traditionally been cremated but now they are often buried.

2. Tibetan People

• Introduction 

The Tibetans first settled along the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet. Evidence of the new and Old Stone Age culture was found in archaeological excavations at Nyalam, Nagqu, Nyingchi and Qamdo. According to ancient historical documents, members of the earliest clans formed tribes known as "Bos" in the Shannan area. Under the rule of feudal serfdom, which combined political and religious powers, the Tibetans' social life and customs and habits bore obvious marks of their historical traditions and distinctive culture.

• Tibetan Name 

As a rule, a Tibetan goes only by his given name and not family name, and the name generally tells the sex. As the names are mostly taken from the Buddhist scripture, namesakes are common, and differentiation is made by adding "senior," "junior" or the outstanding features of the person or by mentioning the birthplace, residence or profession before the names. Nobles and Living Buddhas often add the names of their houses, official ranks or honorific titles before their names.

• Clothing 

All Tibetans, men and women, like to wear ornaments. Men usually wear a queue coiled on top of the head. Some cut their hair short, like a canopy. Women, when coming of age, begin to plait their hair into two queues or many tiny queues which are adorned with ornaments. Both men and women wear felt or fine fur hats. They wear long-sleeved silk or cloth jackets topped with loose gowns which are tied with a band on the right. Women in some farming areas wear sleeveless gowns or home-spun wool. Herdsmen and women do not wear jackets, but are clad in sheepskin robes, with sleeves, collars and fronts edged with fine fur or dyed cloth laces. Men wear trousers and women wear skirts. All men and women wear woolen or leather boots. Men have long waistbands while women in farming areas wear aprons with beautiful patterns. They use woolen blankets as mattresses or cushions and their quilts are made of sheepskin or wool. Poor peasants and herdsmen have neither mattresses nor quilts.

• Food 

Zamba, roasted qingko barley or pea meal mixed with tea, is the staple food of Tibetan peasants. Tea with butter or milk is the favorite of all Tibetans. Buttered tea is made in a wooden tub. In pastoral areas, the staple foods are beef and mutton. They eat out of wooden bowls and with short-handled knives which they always carry with them.

FAMOUS FOOD IN CHINA

Dumplings are a famous traditional northern Chinese food. They are half-moon-shaped, soft, stuffed pasta — like ravioli. Dumplings are named according to their various fillings and cooking methods (fried, heated in boiling water, or steamed).

Dumplings have also become a common type of food in southern China, where people don't grow/eat wheat as a rule. "Southern dumpling” skins are typically made of rice.

An Important Chinese New Year Food

Dumplings are a traditional Spring Festival food in northern China, but not in the south. On the eve of the Spring Festival, dumplings have an irreplaceable place in many New Year's Eve banquets, though some areas choose to eat dumplings after New Year's Eve.

Dumplings are a representative Chinese cuisine, with both shape and filling having cultural meaning. That's why they're essential for some during Spring Festival, as they express their aspirations for a better life, and hopes for certain blessings.

Symbolizing Wealth

Eating dumplings at the Spring Festival is said to bring good fortune financially, as dumplings look like ingots, the currency used in old times.

Symbolic Dumpling Stuffings

Celery stuffing represents industriousness and (resulting) wealth. Reason: 'Celery' (芹菜 qíncài /chin-tseye/) sounds like 'industrious wealth' (勤财 qíncái). Leek stuffing represents long-term wealth. Reason: 'Leek' (韭菜 jiǔcài /jyoh-tseye/) sounds like 'industrious wealth' (久财 qíncái). It also represents a wish for the family to be in good health, harmony, joy and happiness 久: 日久生情, 永久和平 'familiarity breeds fondness', 'enduring peace').

Cabbage stuffing represents the blessing for a well-off life for a hundred years. 白菜 báicài /beye-tseye/ 'white vegetable') sounds like 'hundred wealth' (百财 bǎicái). It also represents the enduring love between new couples (from the popular saying including : 白头到老 'white head until old'… to live in conjugal bliss until the white hairs of old age; “until death do us part”).

Mushroom stuffing is the mascot for increasing wealth and luck. Reason: Mushrooms are shaped like an up arrow showing, for example, the stock market's growth, progress, increasing quality of life, or wishes for the younger generation to grow taller and improve in their studies, etc.

Fish stuffing means surplus wealth. Reason: 'Fish' (鱼 yú /yoo/) sounds the same as 'surplus' (余 yú). Eating fish dumplings means wishing you have a lot of remaining money. "年年有（鱼）余 'surplus year after year' " is a popular saying in China, which express a desire that expects every year remaining food.

Beef stuffing represents strong economic growth. The bull symbolizes strength, and is favored by stock investors. 'Bull market' (牛市) in Chinese refers to a period of rising stock prices. The popular saying牛气十足('bull energy ten sufficient') wishes good health and happiness.

BACKGROUND OF CHINA

CHINA

INTRODUCTION

China is the world's most populous country. It has a continuous culture stretching back nearly 4,000 years and originated many of the foundations of the modern world. The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949 after the Communist Party defeated the nationalist Kuomintang, who retreated to Taiwan, creating two rival Chinese states - the People's Republic on the mainland and the Republic of China based on Taiwan. After stagnating for decades under the rigid totalitarian socialism of founder Mao Zedong, China reformed its economy along partly capitalist lines to make it one of the world's fastest-growing, as well its leading exporter. China is now a major overseas investor, and is pursuing an increasingly assertive foreign and deference policy.China has 33 administrative units directly under the central government, these consist of :

1. 22 provinces 

1. 5 autonomous regions 

1. 4 municipalities(Chongqing, Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin) 

1. 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau)

The island province of Taiwan, which has been under separate administration since 1949, is discussed in the article Taiwan. Beijing (Peking), the capital of the People’s Republic, is also the cultural, economic, and communications centre of the country. Shanghai is the main industrial city; Hong Kong is the leading commercial centre and port.

China

China is the third largest country in the world in area (after the USSR and Canada). The USA has a very slightly smaller land area. It is the largest country in terms of population (over 1,000 million people), about a quarter of the world's total. For more on the country of China see our Geography index.

RELIGION

The Chinese Communist Party that rules the nation is officially atheist, though it is gradually becoming more tolerant of religions, according to the Council on Foreign Relations. Currently, there are only five official religions. Any religion other than Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism are illegal, even though the Chinese constitution states that people are allowed freedom of religion. The gradual tolerance of religion has only started to progress in the past few decades. About a quarter of the people practice Taoism and Confucianism and other traditional religions. There are also small numbers of Buddhists, Muslims and Christians. Although numerous Protestant and Catholic ministries have been active in the country since the early 19th century, they have made little progress in converting Chinese to these religions. The cremated remains of someone who may have been the Buddha were discovered in Jingchuan County, China, with more than 260 Buddhist statues in late 2017. Buddha was a spiritual teacher who lived between mid-6th and mid-4th centuries B.C. His lessons founded Buddhism.